Water Consumption in Electricity Generation Using Different Technologies

1. Water consumption in electricity generation (including water consumed during fuel extraction and processing)

Note: 

OT: Once-through
CL: Closed-loop/cooling pond

Source: Mielke, E., Anadon, L. D., & Narayanamurti, V. (2010). Water Consumption of Energy Resource Extraction, Processing, and Conversion. Energy Technology Innovation Policy Discussion Paper, 2010-15. Harvard Kennedy School. [Full-text at http://j.mp/Water_KSG]

2. Comparison of water withdrawal across fuel cycles

Generation Technology	Water Consumption
	(gal/MWh)	(l/MWh)
Nuclear, once-through	31,701	120,000
Nuclear, recirculating	1,321	5,000
Nuclear, cooling pond	1,030	3,900
Coal, once-through	25,995	98,400
Coal, recirculating	660	2,500
Coal, cooling pond	17,250	65,300
Oil/Gas, once-through	22,692	85,900
Oil/Gas, recirculating	608	2,300
Oil/Gas, cooling pond	7,899	29,900
Wind	61	230
PV, multi-Si	502	1,900
PV, CdTe	211	800
Hydro	21	80
Biomass, Southwest	115,707	438,000
Biomass, Midwest	528	2,000

Source: Fthenakis, V., & Kim, H. C. (2010). Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. electricity generation. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14, 2039-2048. [Full-text at http://j.mp/Water_LCA]

3. Water intensity of electricity by fuel source and generation technology

Generation Technology	Water Consumption (gal/MWh)
	Total	Wet Cooling	Generation	Producing Fuel Source
Nuclear	475-900	400-720	30	45-150
Fossil Thermal	335-584	300-480	30	5-74
Coal IGCC	342-414	200	137-140	5-74
Natural Gas Combined Cycle	198-201	180	7-10	11
Wind	0	0	0	0
PV	5	0	5	0
Solar Trough	840-1000	760-920	80	0
Solar Tower	830	750	80	0
Biomass	330-510	300-480	30	Highly variable depending on whether biomass is irrigated
Hydroelectric	4500	Not applicable	0	Highly variable, avg. 4,500 due to evaporation
Geothermal	1400	1400	Not available	Not available

Source: Carter, N. T., & Campbell, R. J. (2009). Water Issues of Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Electricity in the U.S. Southwest. CRS Report for Congress, R40631 (June 8, 2009). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. [Full-text at http://j.mp/Water_Power]


4. Percentage distribution of cooling technology by generation type in the United States

Generation Type	Percentage (%)
	Wet Recirculating	Once-Through	Dry	Cooling Pond
Coal	48.0%	39.1%	0.2%	12.7%
Fossil Non-Coal	23.8%	59.2%	0.0%	17.1%
Combined Cycle	30.8%	8.6%	59.0%	1.7%
Nuclear	43.6%	38.1%	0.0%	18.3%
Total	41.9%	42.7%	0.9%	14.5%

Source: National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL). (2009). Estimating Freshwater Needs to Meet Future Thermoelectric Generation Requirements: 2009 Update (DOE/NETL-400/2009/1339). [Full-text at http://j.mp/Power_vs_Cooling]